The contribution of motherese or child-directed speech

The contribution of motherese or child-directed speech Language is the standard by which higher intellectual processes are revealed. It is important means of social communication and is one of the exceptional systems of habits which distinguish man from the animals. Differences in language account for many of the distinct contrasts between peoples, and to its deficiency may be attributed the differences between intellectual development. As preverbal infant it is important for caregivers to know how to acquire the fundamental aspects of language more efficiently. Motherese or child-directed speech (CDS) is a pattern of speech which is used for communication with preverbal children. Child-directed speech found to draw children attention more decently due to distinctive characteristics (Brand, Baldwin Ashburn, 2002; Bohannon Marquis, 1977; Fernald Mazzie, 1991; Greiser Kuhl, 1988; Hoff-Ginsberg, 1986; Masataka, 1998; ONeill, Bard, Linnel, Fluck, 2005; Rowe, Pan Coker, 2004; Sokol, Webster, Thompson Stevens, 2005; Tamis-LeMonda Borns tein, 1994). In this study we will investigate the aspects of child-directed speech and the contribution of it to infants language development. First, to describe CDS it is important to underline that for occurrence of CDS an infants or young childs presence is required. Adults, especially mothers, use this pattern of communication by adjusting, their linguistic and prosodic aspects of speech which construct the concept of motherese. Child-directed speech is distinctive by its slower production of utterances, and pitch contours are often pronounced more clearly and exaggerated (Brand, Baldwin Ashburn, 2002; Bohannon Marquis, 1977; Fernald Mazzie, 1991; Greiser Kuhl, 1988; Hoff-Ginsberg, 1986; Masataka, 1998; ONeill, Bard, Linnel, Fluck, 2005; Rowe, Pan Coker, 2004; Sokol, Webster, Thompson Stevens, 2005; Tamis-LeMonda Bornstein, 1994). Several studies indicate that prosodic features of child-directed speech are far more important than its syntactic or semantic features (Greiser Kuhl, 1988). Moreover, studies show that the exaggerated prosody of CDS increases the salience of acoustic cues to linguistic structure for the preverbal infant (Fernald Mazzie, 1991). Additionally, the prosodic features of the maternal speech help infant to distinguish the identical syllables (Greiser Kuhl, 1988). The evidence show, that child-directed speech is characterized by perceptual features which are more attractive to children, although it is important to investigate the contribution of motherese on language development. The study of Greiser and Kuhl (1988) provide us with three general explanations of CDS to contribution to language development. Three major characteristics are described in a study of Greiser and Kuhl (1988) consistent of linguistic, attentional, and social/affective constructs. Linguistic explanation is characterized by expanded pitch contours which serve as indication of linguistic boundaries (Greiser Kuhl, 1988). Moreover, by highlighting the linguistic boundaries make the language explanation more efficient (Greiser Kuhl, 1988). In several studies of syntax growth related to maternal speech, the most frequently appearing predictor of syntax growth is the occurrence in input of expansions, reacts, and other sorts of utterances that repeat some or all of the semantic content of the prior utterance while changing the syntactic form of expression (Hoff-Ginsberg, 1986). In addition, positive effects have been found of mothers utterances that repeat part of the childs previous utterance and of utterances in which mothers or experimenters repeat part of their own previous utterance (Hoff-Ginsberg, 1986).Natura listic and experimental studies have also found the occurrence of yes or no questions in input to be positively associated with measure of childrens syntax growth (Hoff-Ginsberg, 1986). The attentional characteristic of CDS contributes to the level of perceived language by the infant, and the level of prominence of perceived language respectively (Greiser Kuhl, 1988). By using high pitch contours combined with deep emotional expressions contribute to the level and prominence of perceived utterances (Greiser Kuhl, 1988). Moreover, Sokol, et al. (2005) proposes that maternal speech patterns is more suitable for the infants immature auditory system. The study shows , that maternal pattern of speech is adjusting to infants auditory and cognitive abilities. By adjusting to infants auditory and cognitive abilities it is credible to draw and maintain infants attention. Social/affective characteristic of CDS contribute to infants language development by regulating infants affective state (Greiser Kuhl, 1988). In a study of Clarck (as cited in Sokol et al., 2005) suggest that salience regulation of infants affective state may sustain language learning at the early stages of development. The use of higher and expanded pitch contours allow mothers to assign important affective discriminative stimuli and information which will be identified by the infant as positive signals regulating the infants affective state (Greiser Kuhl, 1988; Sokol et al., 2005). Child-directed speech serves to adjust the affective states of the infant depending on whether the caregiver encouraging, soothing or just seeking to elicit the infants attention (Sokol et al., 2005). According to developmental psychologists nonlinguistic representations of the world contribute and constrain the structure of child language and the course of its development (Tamis-LeMonda Bornstein, 1994). What is more, when interacting with infants adults alter their movements in ways that increase infants attention to action and highlight meaningful units within the flow of motion (Brand, Baldwin Ashburn, 2002). Mothers shape their language-related gestures to infants, using fewer gestures over all, and more often gestures to reinforce or disambiguate the verbal message, rather than to add new information (Brand et al., 2002). Gestures associated with child-directed speech called motionese are likely to assist infants attention to action (Brand et al., 2002). Such reinforced attention should help infants to learn about action more readily (Brand et al., 2002). Studies show that mothers showed higher level of enthusiasm and interest in the object demonstrating to infants, which is considered reinforcing behavior for the baby (Brand et al., 2002). Additionally, increased gaze from mothers in mothers infant-directed action, help maintain infants attention and thus can benefit in language and cognitive development (Brand et al., 2002). Overall it is important to evaluate gestures as a part child-directed speech because of their attentional and linguistic contribution to infants development. Child-directed speech or motherese is a universal pattern of speech with preverbal children by caregivers independent of language (Greiser Kuhl, 1988). Some aspects of motherese as motionese could be found in different sign languages, whereas sign motherese shares analogous characteristics with maternal speech (Masataka, 1998). In her study Masataka (1998) found that hearing infants exposed to motherese sign language showed more interest and attraction then to adult sign language. This study support that, special properties evident in infant-directed speech may have universal attentional and affective significance (Masataka, 1998). In addition, it is important to investigate the importance of father talk to infants and their contribution to the language development. Several studies demonstrate the difference in the ways fathers talk to their preverbal infants (Rowe et al., 2004). Fathers in Western middle-class produce more directives, more wh-questions, and more frequent requests for clarification in talk with children, thus engaging children in more complex cognitive processes (Rowe et al., 2004).Fathers tend to use directives in their indirect form which may present cognitive/linguistic challenges in interpretation (Rowe et al., 2004). By addressing the wh-questions the conversation becoming more demanding and require child to respond non-imitatively and verbally (Rowe et al., 2004). Although there are only few studies on paternal talk to the infant it is clear that CDS of father contribute to the language development by putting the child in more complex linguistic and cognitive processes. Concluding it is important to underline aspects of motherese contributing to language development. Child-directed speech or motherese, play an important role in language development of an infant. Motherese prosodic characteristics influence directly the language development because of its slower and smooth production, higher and exaggerated pitch contours and sensitive pause distribution in utterances. Additionally, motherese influence the child affective and attentional states, which contributes indirectly to the language development. Although, there is a lot of evidence about child-directed speech positive qualities there should be more investigation about the contribution of child-directed speech to language development. Word Count: 1337

OCR physics B research project Essay

Originally most people believed that the universe was constant as this seemed both more sensible and more comforting. Most Greeks set the planets, sun and other stars in a series of fixed spheres. Newton’s religious beliefs lead him to create a static and eternal model of the universe where there is an infinite number of stars and each of them are the same and equally distant equally distant, thus causing their attractions to cancel out, despite obvious problems with this idea. Even once most scientists agreed that the universe is expanding or that it has done so in the past, there was much speculation about why it is expanding and what will happen to it in the future. Hypotheses such as the Big Bang and Steady State models of the universe have persuaded physicists over the past century. Some remain in favour while many others have been dismissed on the basis of observational evidence. The static universe This was historically the most popular view as it seems to fit best with everyday experience of the universe. Until Newton developed his Theory of Gravitation, there seemed to be no particular reason to dismiss this idea. It became ingrained in the minds of many people to the extent that scientists who could see that it was not consistent with currently accepted Theories rejected the idea of a changing universe. Once the idea of a universal attraction between masses was introduced, people used two different ideas to justify a belief in a static universe. The first was that God held everything apart. The second was by introducing a force which opposed gravity on a large scale. When Einstein formulated his Theory of General Relativity, he introduced a force called the â€Å"cosmological constant† to fit in with his views of a stationary universe. Speculation regarding a non-eternal and expanding universe Olber’s paradox, first described in 1823, suggests that the idea of an infinite universe does not fit with observational evidence. If there is an infinite number of stars, an infinitely large amount of light should reach us. From this, it can be concluded that the universe is not infinite in size and age. After the Russian mathematician, Alexander Friedmann, learned of Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity, he saw that it implied a changing universe. He saw the cosmological constant as unnecessary. In 1922 he published an article in a publication called Zeitschrift fur Physik. In this he put forward three possible realities based upon his calculations. He worked from the starting point of an expanding universe; this allows everything plenty of time to happen, while a universe created in a static state might be expected to contract in a small amount of time. The scenarios differed in their average density of the universe. A high average density relative to speed of expansion would lead gravity to pull all matter back to one point, an idea now commonly referred to as a Big Crunch. A low density would leave the gravitational attraction too weak to stop the expansion completely. The universe would expand forever and become cold and desolate. In the remaining option, the density would be enough to slow the expansion to a rate low enough to give a universe that remains roughly the same size for a long period. Einstein rejected Friedmann’s work, initially claiming that the calculations were incorrect. He eventually admitted that the work was mathematically sound, but he maintained that it did not represent reality. If the assumption that the universe is expanding is removed, collapse is the only possible outcome. Justification for this assumption was required and it soon arrived as a result of meticulous observation and measurement of the stars by Edwin Hubble. But first, another important idea was announced. In 1927, a Belgian cosmologist named Georges Lemaitre reasoned that if the universe is expanding, it must have previously been smaller. He extrapolated back from this to theorize that the whole universe must have once been small and compact. He called this state the â€Å"primeval atom† and it was the origin of the Big Bang Theory. This is not the only possible logical conclusion of the creation of an expanding universe, but it seems the most obvious and simple one, and therefore the first choice using Ockham’s Razor, the idea that a simple solution is usually preferable to one that seems needlessly complicated. Lemaitre’s work, just like Friedmann’s, was rejected by the majority of the scientific community, including Einstein, upon whose theory their ideas were based. To persuade people, data was needed. Observations suggesting an expanding universe The easiest way to get a rough idea of the distance to a star is to compare its brightness to that of a star of known distance. The amount of light observed is inversely proportional to the square of the distance to the star. If two stars are equally bright, this can be used to work out the ratio of their distances. Stars vary greatly in brightness, so this method can only give a very rough figure. It’s accuracy was improved by focusing on a group of stars that are believed to be of approximately the same level of brightness. This group came in the form of Cepheid variables. The brightness of these fluctuates over time and the speed at which this happens can be measured. Data from Cepheids in the Small Magellanic Cloud (so the distances should all be reasonably similar) suggested that the amount of light emitted could be linked to the period of oscillation. It therefore seemed reasonable to assume that the ratio of the squares of the distances of two Cepheid variables was inversely proportional to the observed brightness. (http://map. gsfc. nasa. gov/universe/uni_expansion. html) Edwin Hubble used this to work out the distances to a large number of stars. All he now needed to see whether the universe was expanding, contracting or staying roughly the same in size was the recessional velocities of the stars. If the recessional velocities were mainly positive and proportional to distance from the Earth, it suggested an expanding universe. Mainly negative and getting more negative as you get further from us would indicate contraction. Mainly positive or negative with no correlation between speed and distance might suggest expansion in the first case and contraction in the second, but it would not be as simple as the other cases. A roughly even mixture of positive and negative recessional velocities would indicate a static universe. Recessional velocities cannot be measured directly. The change in distance over a short period is too small relative to the starting distance for the imprecise measurement system previously described to detect. Hubble instead used the Doppler Effect to find out the speed of retreat. The spectrum of observed light varies depending upon the elements present within a star. Each element gives a unique pattern of spectral lines. The amount these lines are red shifted can be used to measure the recessional velocity. Higher speeds result in a greater red shift. Observed frequency = f+fv/c f is transmitted frequency, v is velocity of approach of the object and c is the speed of the waves (the speed of light). (http://library. thinkquest. org/27948/doppler. html) Hubble made measurements of the distance to and the red shift of a vast number of stars and concluded that stars have a recessional velocity directly proportional to their distance from us, as would be expected in an expanding universe. He came up with Hubble’s Law, which states v=H0d v is recessional velocity, H0 a constant (Hubble’s constant) and d is distance. (Advancing Physics A2, p. 74) image00. png Hubble drew the above graph to show his results. The distance estimates have since been revised upwards. (http://www. phys. unsw. edu. au/astro/wwwlabs/hdfSize/hdfSize_intro. html) Early estimates of Hubble’s constant placed it at around 50-100kms-1Mpc-1, while newer estimates have narrowed it down to around 70-80kms-1Mpc-1. Hubble’s constant can be used for several things, including estimating the age of the universe. I shall use it to work out the approximate distance away a star would have to be for the observed frequency to be half the emitted frequency. observed frequency One Mpc is roughly 3. 26Ãâ€"106 light years, so the star would be about 6. 5 billion light years distant. Fred Zwicky suggested in 1929 that light may lose energy as it travels, which would explain the proportional relationship between red shift and distance. This idea was called the Tired Light hypothesis. This idea has not been very popular as it has trouble explaining some observations while expansion seems a much simpler solution. (http://www. astro. ucla. edu/~wright/tiredlit. htm) Theories to explain expansion Although many hypotheses were posited, two took prominence, the Big Bang and Steady State theories. The Big Bang theory gradually developed from Lemaitre’s idea of the primeval atom, while Fred Hoyle, Thomas Gold and Hermann Bondi created the Steady State theory. The Big Bang is the idea that the whole universe was created by the expansion of a very small and heavy region. The Steady State theory states that the universe is infinite in age, but new matter is constantly being created and space is expanding. Both theories gained great popularity, but there were some problems with the Steady State idea (http://www. alief. isd. tenet. edu/Hastings/student/2/steadystatestands. html). Some stellar objects, such as quasars, were only found at large distances, suggesting that the universe has changed in appearance over time, contrary to the Steady State principle that the universe should have been similar throughout time, despite its expansion. It also had trouble explaining the relative abundance of different elements, which is something the Big Bang model was able to do after a variety of calculations, including those published in the Alpher-Bethe-Gamow paper (http://physicsworld. com/cws/article/news/30915). Olber’s paradox may again be seen as a problem, though the suggestion was put forward that the light would be red shifted, so the sky would not always be bright as the red shift would move the light to a non-visible region. Despite this, the Steady State theory remained popular. One set of observations, however, changed this. The existence of Cosmic Background Radiation was predicted by the Big Bang model and it was detected in 1964 (http://archive. ncsa. uiuc. edu/Cyberia/Cosmos/Footprints. html). Some proponents of the Steady State theory attempted to explain this as the result of scattered light from distant stars, but they could not explain the black body spectrum produced. Following these results, the Big Bang theory became dominant and it currently remains so. Bibliography Paper sources All the sections up to, but not including, â€Å"Observations suggesting and expanding universe† are sourced from Big Bang by Simon Singh. Published by Fourth Estate in 2005. Advancing Physics A2, IoP, 2001 These sources should both be reliable as the second was published by the IoP, while the first is a well known popular science book, so any errors would have probably been highlighted by now. Internet sources http://www. phys. unsw. edu. au/astro/wwwlabs/hdfSize/hdfSize_intro. html http://www. astro. ucla. edu/~wright/tiredlit. htm http://www. alief. isd. tenet.edu/Hastings/student/2/steadystatestands. html http://archive. ncsa. uiuc. edu/Cyberia/Cosmos/Footprints. html http://adsabs. harvard. edu/abs/2005ApJ†¦ 635L.. 37R These sources are all from university websites, so should be reliable. http://physicsworld. com/cws/article/news/30915. Physics World is a magazine published by the IoP, so should also be reliable. http://library. thinkquest. org/27948/doppler. html According to the website, Thinkquest is written by students under a qualified teacher. Although it is not necessarily as reliable as the other sources, I feel that this is suffici.

Effects of Climate Change Essay - 1095 Words

Can you imagine a world without the state of Florida? Having a giant hole in Australia? Asian Islands vanished under water? While many people have doubts about the underwater city of Atlantis, we are looking at a world where underwater cities will no longer be objects of wonder and fantasy. The map above is an estimate of what the world will look like if the ice caps melt and sea levels rise the projected 216 feet. As one can see, entire cities will be wiped off the map. While Wisconsin will not become flooded as a direct result of this catastrophe, one should not be naive to think that Wisconsinites, along with everyone else in the world, will not be directly affected by this global melting. In fact, Wisconsin’s outlook may be just as†¦show more content†¦1 out of 8 human deaths are linked to poor air quality. It is common in big cities to have smog and frequent air alerts, if Wisconsin becomes a shelter for humans who become displaced due to rising seas, Wisconsin c ould become a smog filled region, leading to health problems and possible deaths. With more people living in a smaller region, there will be more air, land, and water pollution, which will make the global climate situation even worse. Our Earth cannot afford a worsening climate situation, even at this rate, the planet will become uninhabitable to any human life and the human race will no longer exist. The second area of impact is the Earth’s sustainability. Our water, fuel, and farming resources are becoming strained by the sheer number of human lives that the earth has to support. We are at risk of depleting these resources completely and will not be able to survive. Even if we were to completely switch to wind, solar, and water energy this very second, we would need to burn astounding amounts of coal and oil to be able to produce these other energy efficient resources. It is then a question of whether or not the Earth can sustain the carbon waste that will be admitted tryin g to produce these machines, while still supporting the multiplying number of human lives. If the environment or oil talks do not interest you, the quality of human life itself should. Overpopulation will directly causeShow MoreRelatedThe Effects Of Climate Change On The Climate1091 Words   |  5 PagesClimate change means the fluctuation changes of the climate in a period of time, this period of time could means several decades or centenaries, the fluctuation could be regional or global. 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Analysis Of Cat On A Hot Tin Roof - 1349 Words

The Effects of Holding onto Crutches â€Å"Of course you always had that detached quality as if you were playing a game without much concern over whether you won or lost, and now that you’ve lost the game, not lost but just quit playing, you have that sort of charm that usually only happens in very old or hopelessly sick people, the charm of the defeated† (30). In this quote, Maggie, a character in Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, is expressing to her husband Brick how he surrounds his life with a defeated aura. This defeated aura restricts him from overcoming his struggles and blinds him from seeing the future. He holds onto to several crutches, in hopes that his struggles will be pushed aside and he can escape reality. These crutches come in several forms, but are essentially just excuses. People all over the world, such as the contestants on one of America’s most watched TV shows--The Biggest Loser, hold onto crutches and find excuses for not pursuing a future outcome. On the show, overweight contestants are trained to lose weight and eat healthy in order to give their body a second chance. All contestants have a story behind their weight gain, and every time it was because they could not let go of a crutch and chose to eat their way out of hardships. Maggie’s husband Brick does essentially the same, but with different crutches and different methods of escape. So, through Tennessee Williams’s play Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, it can be proved that holding onto crutches hampers people fromShow MoreRelatedA Critical Analysis Of Cat On A Hot Tin Roof 1239 Words   |  5 PagesA Critical Analysis of â€Å"Cat on a Hot Tin Roof† by Tennessee Williams Thomas Lanier â€Å"Tennessee† Williams background greatly influenced his stories, including his drama, â€Å"Cat on a Hot Tin Roof.† One important influence on the drama was the author’s father, Cornelius Coffin. 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The use of this metaphor was to show the reader why the preacher doesn’t preach anymore. The effect the metaphor had on the reader was, for them to see how the preacher really viewed ‘the sperit’. B. â€Å"One cat’ takes and shoves ten families out. Cat’s all over hell now†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (pg. 8, Chapter 2). This quote is